Persuading students through technology

Information and communication technologies (ICT) are becoming more accepted as educational tools in classrooms. This is only going to become more prevalent, with schools increasingly distributing iPads instead of textbooks and using mobile phones to engage students. In exploring current persuasive techniques in use, it is possible to determine how to incorporate even more efficient ways of using persuasive technology in the classroom. Murphy and Alexander (2004) indicate that persuasion is an inherent part of education, and forms the basis of student engagement. Without persuasion, students would not be able to utilize current knowledge for building fuller frames of comprehension. Currently, technology has become a focus of education and is being evaluated as a measure of student success. Collins and Halverson (2010) found technological mastery as being considered an indicator to predict economic advancement. They found parents feel obligated to purchase electronic devices to assist in their children’s education, providing an opportunity for educators to utilize these devices within educational settings (Collins & Halverson, 2010).

This paper aims to address the following research questions:

• What types of persuasive technology are currently being used to support instruction?
• What factors of persuasive technology are currently being used to support instruction?
• How can persuasive technology be used more effectively to improve student learning?

Literature Review

 Various approaches have been used for making students participate and interact with information, but now teachers have technology as an option in the classroom. Through technology, planned persuasive design simply provides an additional tool for educators to engage students. Several researchers have explored how persuasive technology has been utilized in educational settings.

Functional Value

 Barab, Pettyjohn, Gresalfi, Volk & Solomou (2012) found in their study that educational games provide meaning to content, providing “functional value” (p. 532) in how students can apply information to practical applications and achieve personal satisfaction from the results. Applying knowledge in real or imagined worlds provides the content for when the information would be used. This exemplifies why a student needs to learn the information, and what the consequences could be if they do not. Many times, textbooks provide information without context, leaving students to determine how it would be applied in real life.

In early learning, many students do not understand the purpose of the material they are learning. They lack sophistication in educational procedures, and learning attempts can quickly lead to frustration. By making learning fun and engaging, this frustration is elevated and students are motivated to participate.

 Mobility

Mobility is an important issue for many people. They need to be able to access their technology on the go, and they utilize tablets, laptops, and even mobile phones. Having persuasive educational technology available on a variety of platforms allows greater flexibility for users, and consequently greater usage of applications. Several studies have utilized mobile phones to deliver messages to participants.

Goh, Seet, and Chen (2012) explored how short messaging services (SMS) were utilized in supplementing educational messages to students. According to Goh et al (2012), the researchers used the seven principles of persuasive technology in the SMS messages, and found those to be effective. The most improvement was evident in self-regulated students, and researchers suggested SMS interventions would be effective for high risk students (Goh et al, 2012). These messages were delivered through mobile phones, making the service mobile and easy to deliver no matter where the participants are located. This ability to have the application with them at all times enabled the persuasive technology to be effective.

Wang, Shen, Novak, and Pan (2009) employed a popularly used digital device in their study, using mobile phones to engage students who otherwise would have limited interaction with instructors and classmates. Texting applications between students and instructors used the most popular technology, and allowed students to start participating in their own education. Current educational processes have embraced the use of laptops and other portable devices, however mobile phones are just beginning to be considered as learning tools.

In China, the most popular mobile device is the mobile phone, and educators are looking to expand educational services through mobile learning (mLearning) to create an interactive educational environment (Wang et al, 2009). Classes in China are typically in a classroom, or live online, but allow little interaction with instructors or classmates. Researchers found students participating in mLearning reported stronger engagement and connection to the course material (Wang et al, 2009). Instructors reported increased student interaction and improved performance (Wang, 2009). Utilizing popular technology enabled students to participate in their education, instead of passively experiencing their education (Wang et al, 2009). Through texting, students were able to interact to a higher degree than they were able to previously. Questions and comments could be exchanged between students and teachers, making the learning experience more interactive.

Mintz & Aagaard (2012) performed a study using the HANDS web application, with interventions creating positive results in forming educational, emotional, and physical outcomes. This study shows positive results in using persuasive technology in educational settings, whether the targeted goal is distributing knowledge or informing behaviors. Through this application, participants could utilize the application wherever and whenever they encountered a difficult social situation.

Gamification

Gamification provides an opportunity to learn through play. Using game concepts and mechanics to engage students, these applications offer fun and inventive ways to involve students in learning. Gamification is typically conveyed through technological means, using consoles, mobile phones, tablets, or computers. This allows the student to engage anywhere and anytime, even extending the experience outside the classroom.

Video games are popular forms of entertainment where participants explore imaginary worlds and complete complex tasks. Gee (2003) suggested through the experience of playing video games, that people are “learning a new literacy” (p. 199). Due to the content of the game itself, participants are learning to identify with the complex symbolism inherent to our society. Instead of reading letters and numbers through a textbook, the participant is being exposed to pictures, charts, tables, and artifacts that are also important for students to learn and understand the meaning of (Gee, 2003). The selection of video games available to purchase is wide enough that most people are able to find some that are appealing to play.

Games allow participants to play, and not have real life consequences beyond the expense of time. This aspect of playfulness is appealing to many people. Douglas Thomas and John Seely Brown contend the essential learning properties of “curiosity, imagination, and a sense of play” (as cited in Cohen, 2011, p. 16) are not evident in conventional textbooks and text based education. However, these properties are all evident in video games. Many video games send participants on quests to find people or items in an imaginary world that creates obstacles. These obstacles have to be navigated, utilizing critical thinking skills. Participants open doors and containers while attempting to locate an item, satisfying their curiosity while fulfilling the quest requirements. The participant has to imagine the need for finding the item is real, even if only to proceed to the next quest.

While playing a game, learning constantly occurs because participants are self-motivated to discover, evaluate, and disseminate information continuously (Cohen, 2011). Participants can work together sharing information and ideas without the pressure of getting the exactly worded correct answer. Participants can take risks without real-life penalties (Gee, 2003). In contrast, exams and tests do not allow for trial and error, with students that make mistakes having no opportunity to correct a poor grade. By being able to take risks they would not in a test situation, students can explore boundaries and alternate options and not chance a lower grade.

Games can be used to build skills that can later be tested for proficiency. Barab et al (2012) suggest appropriately constructed educational games influence children socially and personally through their need to obtain specific information in order to be successful. The experiences in a well-designed educational game could still provide the needed knowledge to test well (Barab et al, 2012). Through educational games, academic content is transformed into an interactive activity, allowing the students the opportunity to participate in their own education.  After the game, the participants can retain the knowledge gained through the activity, and apply that information to test questions successfully.

Persuasive Technology Currently in Use. There are programs and schools currently using persuasive technology, and gamification in particular, successfully. Successful programs include the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) Kids’s Interactive Whiteboard Games which offer programming for pre-kindergarten through grade eight in areas such as language arts, art, math and social sciences. This web application has proven to be highly popular, and offers a great enough variety that children at different learning levels are still engaged. The majority of the application is geared towards very young children, with basic skills being the main focus. However, many of the activities are available to older children and are equally popular. The Learning Company’s WII and Nintendo 3DS educational game, The Oregon Trail, explores history using persuasive technology in the form of gamification (Cohen, 2011). Participants journey through the Oregon Trail, learning history, geography, and geology as they travel. Trophies are earned through gameplay, persuading participants to continue on to the next trophy achievement while learning.

While the concept of gamification is relatively new, games in school are not. However, not many schools build their curriculum around the concept of making everything into a game. That is what an experimental public charter school in New York City, Quest to Learn (Q2L) has done. They have almost entirely eliminated textbooks from the curriculum, and instead use gamification in the classroom. The school uses games to encourage students to “actively participate, use strategic thinking to make choices, solve complex problems, seek content knowledge, receive constant feedback, and consider the point of view of others” (Quest to Learn, n.d.). The students actively participate in constructing games, as well as playing them. The curriculum is designed to involve the students as much as possible, and does not expect rote memorization over developing a deeper understanding of concepts and ideas.

Discussion

 Summary of Findings

The capacity for persuasive technology to assist educators is just starting to be explored. Persuasion is not a new technique in education, but merging tried-and-true persuasive teaching techniques with emerging technology creates an opportunity to infuse students with the initiative to participate in their own education.

Limitations of these studies

            While the use of persuasive technology in educational programs and applications seems an obvious opportunity to engage students, not everyone is convinced of its effectiveness. Dominguez et al (2013) suggested the cognitive impact is insignificant between persuasive technology and traditional teaching methods. They further suggest that while gamification could influence motivation toward learning, the overall scoring between the educational methods did not otherwise indicate any improvements (Dominguez et al, 2013). Proposing existing educational methods be changed without first obtaining proof of effectiveness could prove to be a costly mistake with the high cost of technological equipment.

Technical limitations

The effort required to design and implement persuasive technology in education is significant. Designers and technical personal would be required to create and install programs and applications. After installation, personnel would be needed for training and trouble shooting. Changing current curriculum to a computer systems based methodology would require training of administrators, educators, students, and possibly parents. Families would have to invest in information and technological communication (ICT) equipment to allow students to work on schoolwork at home. That would require educating families of computing equipment requirements, software, and means to access the internet.

The expense of technological equipment could present a barrier for students and families of lesser socioeconomic status.  Whereas traditional education provides free textbooks to students, technology requirements could be significantly higher in cost. A traditional textbook could be used for more than one year, but software licensing for a student would be individual and not transferrable. If the application was custom designed for a school program, the cost could be even higher in development costs. The burden of paying for these applications could be paid in part by the school, but families will likely incur some added expense due to the scope and variety of technologies being used.

             Pedagogical limitations

             Persuasion is an inherent aspect of teaching, requiring educators to use a variety of persuasive measures to engage their students (Murphy, 2004). Persuasion is any message designed to change existing beliefs while representing new ones by capitalizing on current knowledge and beliefs (Murphy, 2004). Through building on these current ideas, an educator is able to slowly inform change in students. However, while technology has offered many opportunities for growth, “the education system remains rooted in a gray industrial past” (Cohen, 2011, p. 16).

Many educators are not familiar with persuasive technology and are uncertain how to utilize it effectively. Teachers that have already been effectively engaging their students and have proven successful could be particularly resistant to changing their methods. Often, it seems that educators attempt to circumvent technology, disallowing use of technologies such as wiki’s and calculators. They do not allow commonly assessed information routes in an attempt to maintain an academic standard, sacrificing tried and true methods to obtain answers that could be utilized into adulthood. Until educators are willing to embrace technology in all its aspects, shortcuts and all, education will not extend beyond memorization of textbook facts.

Conclusions and Future Study

Deliberate and “planned persuasive effects of computer technologies (Fogg 1999, p. 27) provides educators an alternate method to use in engaging students. There is no one-method-fits-all way to teaching, and having a variety of options addresses the diversity and variety found within any student body. Just as Dewey recommended in 1938 that education have students participate instead of spectate, teachers have an opportunity to utilize technology to get students to be participants (as cited in Barab et al, 2012). Some students excel at reading textbooks and synthesizing concepts into practical applications, however students vary in what they are capable of understanding. Educators should have a toolkit of ways to present information to students, with a variety of ways to engage them and compel them to learn. As the world becomes more technical, students are going to have to know how to proficiently navigate a computer, or some computing device.

Persuasive technology may not be more effective than traditional educational methods. If not, that does not mean it should be discarded. Students deserve to be exposed to technology as much as possible, because it is only going to become a greater part of their lives. If the advances within the last twenty years are any indication of the growth in technology that can be expected, students should be given every opportunity to become more proficient with different developing technologies. However, studies show promise in the effectiveness of persuasive technology in education, particularly in motivating students to stay engaged.

Further research is being conducted to examine the efficacy of persuasive technology in education. Simoe, Redondo, and Vilas (2012) began applying aspects of social games to the social educational environment to verify the validity of gamification in education. As an ongoing study, the researchers are tracking progress to determine if gamification provides better results than traditional pedagogy. Through an established social learning web application, Simoe et al (2012) have formed a framework for using gamification in social education. Only through ongoing study will the results of persuasive technology in education be evident.

References

Barab, S., Pettyjohn, P., Gresalfi, M., Volk, C., & Solomou, M. (2012). Game-based curriculum and transformational play: Designing to meaningfully positioning person, content, and context. Computers & Education, 58(1), 518-533. DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2011.08.001

Cohen, A. (2011). The gamification of education. The Futurist. Vol 45(5), 16-17. Retrieved from http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/806087346

Collins, A. & Halverson, R. (2010). The second educational revolution: rethinking education in the age of technology. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26, 18-27. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00339.x

Dominguez, A., Saenz-de-Navarrete, J., de-Marcos, L., Fernandez-Sanz, L., Pages, C., & Martinez-Herraiz, J. J. (2013). Gamifying learning experiences: Practical implications and outcomes. Computers & Education, 63, 380-392. DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2012.12.020

Fogg, B.J. (1999). Persuasive technologies. Communications of the ACM, 42(5), 27-29. Retrieved from http://goo.gl/jXwPxg

Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach US about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: 10.1145/950566.950595

Goh, T.T., Seet, B.C., & Chen, N.S. (2012). The impact of persuasive SMS on students’ self-regulated learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43(4), 624-     640. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2011.01236.x

Mintz, J., & Aagaard, M. (2012). The application of persuasive technology to educational settings. Education Tech Research Dev, 60, 483-499. DOI: 10.1007/s11423-012-9232-y

Murphy, K., & Alexander, P. (2004). Persuasion as a dynamic, multidimensional process: An investigation of individual and intra-individual differences. American Educational Research Journal, 41(2), 337-363. DOI: 10.3102/00028312041002337

Public Broadcasting Service. (2013). Interactive Whiteboard Games. Retrieved from http://pbskids.org/whiteboard/

Quest to Learn. (n.d.). Curriculum. Retrieved from http://q2l.org/curriculum

Simoe, J., Redondo, R., & Vilas, A. (2012). A social gamification framework for a K-6 learning platform. Computers In Human Behavior, 29(2013), 345-353. DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2012.06.007

Wang, M., Shen, R., Novak, D., & Pan, X. (2009). The impact of mobile learning on students’ learning behaviors and performance: Report from a large blended classroom. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(4), 673-695. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00846.x

Zombies in Refrigerators – A Resource Guide

Women in Refrigerators Trope

Women in Refrigerators (WiR) refers to any plot device that utilizes the injured, crippled, kidnapped, raped, driven insane, possessed, enslaved, devolved, dismembered, depowered, subjugated, zombie-ized, and/or death experiences of female characters in order to develop a male protagonist’s character. This plot device was initially remarked upon by writer Gail Simone in 1999, after reading Green Lantern #54 (Marz et al, 1994), where the Green Lantern returns home to find his girlfriend killed, and her dismembered body in the refrigerator. Not all bad things in comics happen to women, however the men that have horrible experiences seem to somehow return to their prior selves, and/or are better for the experiences they endured. Conversely, female characters that typically experience heinous actions never seem to recuperate, which suggests they are too weak to recover or evolve into better people as a consequence of the evil things that happened to them.

Graphic novels that exhibit the women in refrigerators trope

The War on Flesh (Boring & Hildebrandt, 2005) bases its zombie origins in voodoo, with dark forces providing power and insidious persuasion to lead good people to doing evil. In this graphic novel, a young man is killed during a gang fight. Upon his death, his father succumbs to dark forces and resurrects him using voodoo. The father murders a priest, loses an eye, and sacrifices a testicle, but is still able to cope and continue on his destructive path. The mother, on discovering her son was resurrected through dark voodoo magic, kills herself and thus keeps the father on the path to using dark magic in an attempt to resurrect her as well. This story indicates the woman is too weak to handle the situation, and chooses to die than to cope. The male is powerful, and is willing to defy even death to correct the mistakes of others.

The Living and the Dead (Jason, 2006) is about true love overcoming all obstacles, even becoming a zombie. A low wage male worker is saving up to buy a night with the prostitute he met on his way home one evening, when a meteor lands in a graveyard and awakens the dead. As the zombies attack everyone in town, the worker rescues the prostitute and tries to protect her from being attacked by the zombies. When she turns into a zombie after being wounded, the worker finds he cannot kill her and becomes a zombie too, finally making them into a (undead) couple. Throughout the story, the worker attempts to save the female from zombie attacks by leading her around, while she makes no attempt to defend herself. Indeed, she is not even capable of nailing a board to the windows without injuring herself. This story suggests that a woman needs to be rescued, and only a man can do so.

Graphic novels that defy the women in refrigerators trope

Pride and Prejudice and Zombies (Austen & Grahame-Smith, 2010) is based on the Jane Austen novel Pride and Prejudice, however with a zombie flair. Capable of fighting zombies that they call “Unmentionables,” the five Bennet sisters are trained in the deadly arts and are usually found chatting about men, weapons and fighting styles, typically right after slaying said zombies. They are capable of taking care of themselves, and are just as strong, if not stronger, than the strongest male characters in the story. Indeed, the zombies in this graphic novel allow the female characters to exhibit their strength by allowing them to fight and defend themselves, while at no point do they rely on a masculine figure to save them.

The Walking Dead (Kirkman, 2012) shows a world where the infected become zombies, and the living try to find refuge from the walking dead. In this volume, a group of people attempt to find refuge in a prison, only to be confronted with psychotic prison inmates and more of the undead. Characters in this graphic novel all have their strengths and weakness, regardless of gender. When Andrea is attacked by one of the prison inmates, she successfully fights him off and rescues herself. Maggie executes the prison inmate after it is discovered he had murdered and decapitated her two little sisters. Neither women sit around waiting for the males of the group to save them or to determine what punishment should be dealt. They make their own decisions, and are capable of taking care of themselves.

Discussion

            The portrayal of WiR is a weak plot device that only subjugates women’s role in society. Alternate methods of developing a male protagonist’s character could be utilized by using some imagination. Many times the degradation of a female character is not necessary to propel the protagonist to action. The Green Lantern would have pursued the villain Major Force if he had only the slightest contact with the Green Lantern’s girlfriend. Killing and dismembering her was extreme. In War on Flesh (Boring & Hildebrandt, 2005), the mother could have rebelled against the father’s voodoo resurrection of the son, and shown her strength through the actions she took in combatting the evil forces at work. In The Living and the Dead (Jason, 2006), the female in the story could have been a partner in evading the zombies, and not a mindless follower. She could have defended herself equally, instead of relying on the male to save her from every zombie they encountered. Both of these graphic novels were disappointing in their development of female characters.

Pride and Prejudice and Zombies (Austen & Grahame-Smith, 2010) and The Walking Dead (Kirkman, 2012) allow the female characters to have strengths of their own, which they are not shy in using to ensure their survival. While every character seems to have their moments of supreme stupidity, especially when confronted with the undead intent on eating their flesh, this idiocy is not limited to female characters alone. As it should be, male and female characters are equally resourceful, and gender is not used to support another characters moral development.

References

Austen, J., & Grahame-Smith, S. (2010). Pride and prejudice and zombies. New York: Ballantine Books.

Boring, J., & Hildebrandt, G. (2005). War on flesh (Vol. 1). Los Angeles, CA: Tokyopop. Jason. (2006). The living and the dead. Seattle, WA: Fantagraphics Books.

Kirkman, R. (2012). The walking dead: Safety behind bars (Vol. 3). Berkeley, CA: Image Comics, Inc.

Marz, R., Banks, D., Aucoin, D., & Tanghal, R. (1994). Green Lantern: Deadly Force (Vol 3., #54). DC Comics: New York.

Simone, G. (1999). Women in Refrigerators. Retrieved from http://www.lby3.com/wir/

Possible barriers to a citizen’s obtaining access to information

List of all possible barriers to a citizen’s obtaining access to information:

Level/lack of computer skill

Fear of Privacy Loss

Literacy

English-language skills

Availability of Digital Equipment

Helpfulness of library staff

Availability of library staff

Lack of affective support

Education

Physical Disability

Means of Transportation

Eliminating barriers to information access using Michael Gorman’s Five Steps to Equity

In the scenario of an academic librarian at a university, the librarian could work towards eliminating barriers to information access by following Gorman’s Five Steps to Equity (2000). Gorman (2000) suggests first identifying barriers in information access by no longer expecting inequalities, allowing the librarian to identify a prominent barrier to information access such as the level of computer skills in users (p. 37). To then further understand this obstacle, the technology should be examined to determine contributing and detracting features (Gorman, 2000, p. 137).

Evaluating the technical equipment should include tangible and intangible components. The operating system of the computers located in the library might be different than what is typically available for home use, but it might allow greater flexibility and compatibility. Alternately, users might have little experience with computers altogether, and do not know how to use the equipment. Software used for cataloging could be new to the university, but offers increased usability features over the previous cataloging system. Databases could be complicated to use, but offer greater search results compared to other databases.

This examination of technological contributors should then be followed by a process of authority evaluation. In this evaluation, the librarian should identify key authority figures controlling the obstacles to user information access (Gorman, 2000, p. 137). In the case of increasing user level of computer skills, an academic librarian can “play a role in remedying” (Gorman, 2000, p.37) barriers to information access. They can increase personal interaction time and resources with users to improve these skills on an individual basis. Beyond offering an open willingness to help, the librarian is constrained in directly eliminating this barrier to information access. Within the library organization, the librarian could discuss this barrier with administrators and other librarians to raise awareness of the issue and seek solutions. This would involve higher authority than the librarian might hold, including those who would have power over barriers outside the librarian’s control. Convincing administrators to offer their support might require “providing background necessary to make rational decisions” (Pawley, 1998, p. 131) to statistically substantiate the severity of the issue. Research would be used to prove the disparity between “perception and practice” (Meyers, Nathan, Saxton, 2007) of collegiate user computer skill. Through the administration, actions could be initiated such as the development of instructional signs to display throughout the library and informational programs being made available to students and faculty.

Ultimately, only the user can determine if they will participate and be receptive to eliminating the barrier to their information access. Making these users receptive could require overcoming the fear of a loss of privacy, where people shun technology to prevent “unwanted intrusion” (Chatman, 1996, p. 195). It could also require respecting the value of different types of information users need, and broadening the medium through which information is provided (Wiegand, 1998, p. 58). Libraries frequently offer DVD’s, CD’s and software to address the different information needs of different people, requiring even an academic library to evaluate the types of media being offered (Wiegand, 1998, p. 58). Borgman (2003) suggested technology is developed in response to social demand, making it only logical that a library’s resources reflect this technology (p. 2).

Executing these actions allow for the methodical lessening of inequities. As the inequality is eliminated or reduced, the librarian should then again identify another barrier in information access, repeating the steps until “equity of access is a cardinal principle of all innovations and programs” (Gorman, 2000, p. 137). This process provides parameters for the methodical examination of barriers to information access, and resulting in an action plan on eliminating them all.

References

Borgman, C. (2003) From Gutenberg to the global information infrastructure: Access to information in the networked world. The MIT Press.

Chatman, E. (1996). Impoverished life-world of outsiders. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 47(3), 193-206.

Gorman, M. (2000). Our enduring values: Librarianship in the 21st century. Chicago: American Library Association.

Meyers, E., Nathan, L., & Saxton, M. (2007) Barriers to information seeking in school libraries: Conflicts in perceptions and practice. Information Research, 11(2) 8.

Pawley, C. (1998). Hegemony’s handmaiden: The library and information studies curriculum from a class perspective. The Library Quarterly, 68(2), 123-144.

Wiegand, W. (1998). Mom and me: A difference in information values. American Libraries, 29(7), 56-58.

Information service policies and Web use increasing defense of virtual collections

Information service policies

Service policies in a library directly affect when and how patrons can use library resources. Circulation policies direct patrons on which materials are available and how long they can borrow materials. Reference policies determine how librarians answer patrons’ questions, either through instructional or fulfillment oriented roles (Rubin, 2010, p. 374). Instructional librarians teach patrons how to use library resources and equipment, whereas fulfillment oriented librarians provide solutions to questions (Rubin, 2010, p. 374). Staffing policies determine the number of librarians on staff in library, and if they have specialized training or skills.

There are several circulation policies that can influence access to library resources. Some include borrowing eligibility, checkout duration, resource renewal difficulty, and late material fines. Many libraries require patrons to meet minimum criteria to be able to borrow materials, typically based on residency or academic affiliation. This ensures that materials are primarily available to the community the library is intended for, but can create a barrier to patrons that do not qualify to borrow resources. Some libraries offer alternate means, which typically involves inter-library loans or paying a non-resident fee to become eligible to borrow materials. Many libraries offer inter-library borrowing, but patrons have to wait for resources to arrive at the requesting library. Once a patron borrows a resource, they have a defined amount of time until the resource needs to be returned to the library. This ensures the item is available to other patrons in a timely fashion, but can be difficult for individuals that are not able to completely utilize the material within the defined time frame. Libraries typically allow renewal of items to give extra time, but often that is only available if no one else has requested the material. Renewals also require interaction with the library in some capacity to process the renewal, which can be inhibited by a lack of technological skill in using the internet or electronic library circulation applications. If a resource is not returned within the defined amount of time, fines accrue. If the fines are excessive, library services may be suspended until the balance is paid in full, which they may not be able to do economically. If the balance is higher than the patron perceives the value of the library to them, they typically discontinue use of the library altogether. Librarians can help alleviate these difficulties by educating patrons on renewal procedures when they are initially borrowing resources, and providing physical reminders for due dates on materials for the patron to take with them.

Reference policies affect access through patron perception. Instructional librarians can be perceived as not providing the answers a patron anticipates, and fulfillment oriented librarians could be perceived as not helping patrons to find their own answers by teaching them how to use resources. Disappointed patrons may be discouraged from engaging librarians for future assistance if they do not receive the type of assistance they are seeking, losing valuable insight on library services. LeMaistre, Embry, Van Zandt, and Bailey (2012) found the “reference interview” (p. 270) has decreased in prominence, with reference librarians asking fewer questions to determine patron information seeking needs. Librarians can avoid these misunderstandings by asking questions to understand how best to individually help patrons in their information seeking.

Staffing policies directly form the core of the library, and the type of training and knowledge librarians offer to collection development and patrons. A library that does not have any specialized librarians might suffer in collection development, due to a lack of familiarity in different genres and types of collections. When specialized librarians are available, these individuals are able to focus their attention to specific genre collection development, providing patrons with resources that would otherwise be missed. Libraries that do not have enough staff to support the community discourage patrons from requesting help or checking out resources when faced with long lines. Many libraries are developing self-service check out stations to reduce nonessential staff, freeing up staff to help patrons in other capacities.

Web use increasing defense of virtual collections

The internet has provided almost limitless access to information, necessitating librarians to justify virtual collections more rigorously than previously required. Costs of digital licenses are more complex than print, and require significant consideration to determine the best fit for the library type (Hansen & Sparks, 2000, p. 4). Many digital licenses specify lending and access limitations, including formatting and availability to patrons. Librarians are expected to be able to justify the higher costs of digital resources compared to print materials. Frequently, external pressures arise from individuals who voice opinions about the validity of particular journals, demanding their viewpoint supersede all others (Hansen & Sparks, 2000, p. 10).

Dresang (2006) found the issue of intellectual freedom in virtual collections is typically contested in public and school libraries, where youth access issues were the most hotly contended (p 173). Access to mature subjects and websites are considered to be “corrupting the morals of youth” (p. 182) when offered by libraries or schools to patrons under the age of 18. Dresang (2006) discussed publicized campaigns against libraries who offered a greater degree of information freedom to youth, and the pressure to conform to the individual critic’s moral standards (p. 182). Only when access to information is available to everyone, regardless of any socially constrained barriers, will intellectual freedom cease to be difficult.

References

Dresang, E. (2006). Intellectual freedom and libraries: Complexity and change in the twenty-first century digital environment. Library Quarterly, 76(2), 169-192.

Hansen, C., & Sparks, J. (2000). Framework for accessing the impact of an electronic journal collection on library costs and staffing patterns. Retrieved from

http://dspace.library.drexel.edu/retrieve/4414/Montgomery

LeMaistre, T., Embry, R., Van Zandt, L., & Bailey, D. (2012). Role reinvention, structural defense, or resigned surrender: Institutional approaches to technology change  and reference librarianship. Library Quarterly, 82(3), 241-275.

Rubin, R. (2010). Foundations of library and information science (Third Edition). New York: Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc.

Bibliometrics and citation analysis

Collection Development

With the advent of computing technology, libraries have developed to “help people meet their needs, whether practical, theoretical, religious, or aesthetic” (Rubin, 2010). This goal has inspired librarians to find ways to develop collections that best meet user needs. User needs are constantly changing and expanding to include different types of information resources. Bibliometrics is one tool that allows librarians to determine which journals and materials are needed in their collection development to best meet user needs. In academic libraries, citation analysis can be used to discover the popularity of particular authors, articles, and publications. This information could determine collection development needs for specific college departments and provide valuable clues for future research.

As technology has changed and become affordable to most, libraries have included databases and journals into their collections and expanded the resources available to the community to meet their information needs. Assessing the community and anticipating their information needs keeps the library a hub of information flow that would otherwise be stagnant.

Tracking indicators of scholarly activity

With more databases connected to the internet, the ability to collect and track academic trends becomes easier on a global scale. An online resource such as Google Scholar provides citation features which allow the scientific relationships at the institutional and national level to be mapped globally (Ortega, 2013). Google Scholar provides information on millions of citations, locating relationships and common themes between scholarly research. Web of Science databases allow generational mapping of citations and how they interact and influence other researchers. The ability to track scholarly activity helps researchers locate current topics, and explore studies related to their own. Librarians utilize this information when looking for trends in academic exploration and for helping users meet their information needs for scholarly research. Indicators of scholarly activity could be used to form a library’s collection development policy, determining what databases and journals are available for users.

Automation of citation analysis has provided librarians the opportunity to reflect on results. The ability to quickly and easily index resources with others provides librarians a valuable tool in locating related resources. Updates to databases provide librarians instantly with recent additions, removing the delay from publication to public availability.

Multimedia Access

Developing technology has created new media formats for information to be collected and exchanged. With the growth in the number of digital objects to store, bibliometrics will continue to evolve to include vital information that was previously not recorded. Digitizing images and creating metadata for digital media is currently challenging many libraries today. Determining if a resource is part of a greater open public publishing environment, such as journals, host services, depositories, discussion forums, websites or electronic archives will need to be mapped and measured with authority and integrity (Cronin, 2001). Electronic media is still considered unreliable as a resource, but as methods are devised to ascertain information validity, librarians will need to find ways to create access to these media types to library users.

Challenges facing electronic information retrieval systems

Relevant search results

When users search a database for a specific resource, the results communicated back to the user must not be overwhelming in number. Too many results can discourage the user from finding applicable resources amongst so many. According to the principle of least effort, too many results encourage users to settle for resources that suffice, instead of examining all the results for the best fit (Rubin, 2010). I have used Web of Science extensively as a graduate student, and the ability to track resource citations and related records to locate relevant material has proven invaluable. Refining search parameters by selecting categories, research areas, and publication years have reduced search results beyond Boolean input information.  Users that are not aware of how to refine search parameters are left to roam through information retrieval systems without aim, and typically without success.

Information retrieval systems evaluation

Measuring information retrieval systems to determine if they are meeting their purpose is typically done through collection, services and user satisfaction studies (Rubin, 2010). Studies have to been conducted to determine alternate methods of evaluation. One such study evaluated crowdsourcing to determine the effectiveness compared to laboratory based user studies, and found both to be equally effective in evaluating information retrieval systems (Zuccon, Leelanupab, Whiting, Yilmaz, Jose, & Azzopardi, 2012). Even more importantly, crowdsourcing allowed researchers to collect larger amounts of data to evaluate systems with the potential to test systems with a larger group of users (Zuccon et al, 2012).

Evaluating information retrieval systems can be subjective based on how the evaluation is conducted. Issues of usability, functionality, and accessibility can influence the evaluation whether the information retrieval system is effectively meeting its purpose. Selecting assessment methods can directly influence evaluation results, and so librarians and researchers must carefully devise methods that accurately assess information retrieval systems.

References

Cronin, B. (2001). Bibliometrics and beyond: Some thoughts on web-based citation analysis. Journal of Information Science, 27(1). doi:10.1177/016555150102700101

Ortega, J. (2013). Institutional and country collaboration in an online service of scientific profiles: Google Scholar Citations. Journal of informetrics, 7(2), 394-403.

doi:10.1016/j.joi.2012.12.007

Rubin, R. (2010). Foundations of library and information science. New York: Neal-Schman Publishers.

Zuccon, G. (2013). Crowdsourcing interactions: using crowdsourcing for evaluating interactive information retrieval systems. Information retrieval (Boston), 16(2), 267-305. doi:10.1007/s10791-012-9206-z

Labeling of Children’s Books – Citizen’s Rights to Information

There has been discussion and implementation of labeling on children’s books, proposed by teachers, parents, and publishers. The labeling addresses issues of reading ability and appropriate context based on age and grade level. Based on the labeling system, it would be easy to tell at a glance if a child would be able to successfully read a book.

Situation of Labeling Usage

            A situation could develop when a child has selected books and their teacher chastises them for their book selection. The teacher could indicate that the books are either too low or too high for their reading level. If a child becomes interested in a book that is above their assessed reading level, they might be told the book is too advanced for them to comprehend the context. Books that are considered too low in level could be dismissed based on the lack of reading challenge to the child.

Librarian response

            A librarian’s response to the above situation would be to ensure the rights of the child in selecting their own reading materials. While being confronted with the teacher and student, the library professional should encourage the student’s current selection of books, and propose additional books that are more or less challenging within the same topic based on their reading abilities. Later, when the student is no longer around, the library professional should discuss students’ rights to privacy in their reading material selections with the teacher.

Implementation of Library Freedoms

            Section five of the Library Bill of Rights indicates that a person should not be forbidden use of library materials based on “origin, age, background, or views” (ALA, 1996). To discourage any age group from reading resources because of their perceived ability to process the information within the resource violates the Library Bill of Rights. This includes children as having the right to select whatever library materials they would like.

The American Library Association (ALA) has made their position against the labeling of children’s books clear. ALA stated in 2006 that materials should not be labeled based on reading level, grade level or age. Reading level labeling can create barriers for those who do not know their reading level, as well as people who are aware of their assigned level might limit themselves to only those resources (ALA, 2006).

Cregar (2011) proposes children are discouraged from exploring personal interests in the pursuit of finding resources that meet a teacher’s approval based on labels. This inhibits a child from having access to all the resources within a library (ALA, 2006). Moreillon (2013) suggested everyone, children included, should read above and below their reading abilities. By reading above their abilities, people are challenged to read about subjects that are interesting to them, and as a result build content for future reading on the same topic (Moreillon, 2013). By reading below their abilities, people can revisit old favorites and “the satisfaction that comes from the familiar” (Moreillon, 2013, p. 27).

In 2013, ALA discussed additional reasons against labeling. Confidentiality is compromised when resources are assigned labeled reading levels on the exterior of a resource, allowing other children to see the private reading level of the child which should only be known to parents, teachers and school librarians (ALA, 2013). ALA (2013) also points out the difficulty of non-standard shelving practices. Finding resources becomes more difficult when the organization of resources is not based on topic or category, but instead on the specific labeling system being used within that library.

Children need to learn how to navigate a library. Wachsmann (2012) suggested browsing skills are honed by allowing students to choose their own resources. By allowing these students to look without restriction, these children lose the fear of exploring a resource because it does not immediately seem to be a good fit (Wachsmann, 2012).

Discussion

            Children should be able to select whatever resources they want to in a library. Labeling is most beneficial to adults, allowing for less time in the library and depriving children from the freedom to select their own materials. Labels make it easier for adults to assign appropriately leveled reading material to children, whereas without labeling systems children are still able to find materials to read. Materials that are beyond the reading ability of a student could motivate them to explore other resources in the same topic. They could utilize the images and graphics within the resource to obtain a basic understanding, and want to find out more. This supports the most important aspect of a library, providing materials that interest and engages the users.

Materials that are below a child’s reading level might have been selected because it is pleasurable to read, and not as much of a challenge as the labeled reading materials. The topics in the books might be more interesting, and the graphics more appealing to the student. Regardless, the experience of reading, even if at a lower skill level, is still based on the child’s selection and preference. As such, it should be respected and not criticized.

Students are only allowed a finite amount of time to peruse school library resources. Allowing them to build browsing skills is a critical part of library competency that a student obtains while in school. Depriving them of these skills does not help them when they graduate to higher grades and resources are not separated by reading ability labels. Libraries that are organized by labeling systems do not teach children how to find materials based on the same system used in higher educational and public libraries. They need to learn at a young age that they are responsible for selecting reading material that interests them, and that the librarian is there to help them find materials of interest. If the librarian is instead an authoritarian figure that is there to ensure they do not deviate from materials within their approved reading level, that undermines the child’s belief that librarians are there to help them and not police their reading materials.

 References

American Library Association. (1996). Library bill of rights. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill

American Association of School Librarians. (2013). Position statement on labeling books with reading levels. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/aasl/advocacy/resources/position-statements/labeling

American Library Association. (2006). Questions and answers on labeling and rating systems. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill/interpretations/qa-Labeling

Cregar, E. (2011). Browsing by numbers and reading for points. Knowledge Quest, 39(4), 40-45.

Moreillon, J. (2013). Policy Challenge: Leveling the Library Collection. School Library Monthly, 29(5), 28-29.

Wachsmann, M. (2012). Does labeling children’s books constitute censorship? Reference and User Services Quarterly, 52(2), p. 90-92.

Bodice Ripping in the Library

In the scenario that a public library patron expresses concern over funds being used to purchase romance novels, librarians could defend the library’s selection decisions in accordance with the American Library Association’s (ALA) Code of Ethics. The patron might argue that romance novels should not be purchased by the library, as they may feel that the quality of the writing and story development is inferior to other possible selections. They may believe romance novels do not provide any educational enrichment, and should be excluded from the library collection. In this situation, a librarian can utilize several ethical perspectives in explaining collection selection decisions to the patron.

Selection decisions determine the range of resource types the library collection offers which sets the tone for the library. It is up to the selectors to determine what materials will fit the needs of the library users, regardless if the resources are controversial (Rubin, 2010, p. 421). Rubin (2010) suggests many selectors avoid purchasing controversial materials in an attempt to avoid confrontations such as this, but to do so would infringe on the respect for the individual. People utilize library resources for different reasons, and from these varying needs library collection development policies encourage “building collections that represent a wide range of materials, reflecting diverse perspectives” (Rubin, 2010, p. 418). To eliminate or limit a collection due to the views of dissenters would infringe on the rights of the people who would utilize those resources. Ross, McKechnie and Rothbauer (2006) explored the issue of leisure reading, and asked the question, “When people differ in their tastes, who has the power to look down on whom?” (p. 187). Not all people see the same value in a book genre, and typically value their own preference above others. This personal preference cannot form collection development policy, because to do so would be the true violation of ethical behavior. Fiction of varying types could be argued for their validity in a public library. Collections including mystery, fantasy, science fiction, and westerns could all be removed as easily as removing romance.

Professional codes of conduct have been established to help librarians determine how to handle situations such as this. The ALA Code of Ethics (2008) resists any attempt to censor library resources, encouraging “principles of intellectual freedom.” Instead, it suggests setting aside personal beliefs in performing library duties to ensure access to a variety of information resources. If the library intentionally elected to reduce or eliminate romance novels, it would not be based on a lack of educational enrichment or due to inferior quality. This decision would be grounded on the information needs of the community, and would indicate resource demand influenced the purchase of other more popular resources.

The librarian would need to explain to the patron how libraries provide open access to resources, and that romance novels provide value to the people who check them out. While the patron may not agree, they might be able to appreciate the fact that libraries are obligated to purchase materials that are popular with other patrons.

References

American Library Association.  (2008). Code of Ethics of the American Library Association.  Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/advocacy/sites/ala.org.advocacy/files/content/proethics/codeofethics/Code%20of%20Ethics%20of%20the%20American%20Library%20Association.pdf

Ross, C., McKechnie, L., & Rothbauer, P. (2006). Reading matters. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.

Rubin, R. (2010). Foundations of library and information science (Third Edition). New York: Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc.

 

Book Review of Reading Matters: What Research Reveals about Reading, Libraries, and Community

Reading Matters: What Research Reveals about Reading, Libraries, and Community by Catherine Sheldrick Ross, Lynne McKechnie, and Paulette M. Rothbauer (2006) showcases a compilation of research about readers and the role of libraries in promoting literacy and reading. This book addresses the myths and histories of reading. The purpose of Reading Matters is to provide insight into the role that reading plays in the lives of children, young adults, and adults. This book was written to appeal to an audience of library staff, parents, teachers, as well as students in library information science programs. As a result of the research compiled in this book, the reader will comprehensively understand the varying dynamics of reading. This information can then be effectively relayed to library trustees, parents, and others who seek to understand how and why people read.

Background Information

Reading Matters primarily focuses on the role that reading plays in different people’s lives. Ross, McKechnie, and Rothbauer use an abundant amount of research to show the role that reading plays in the lives of children, young adults and adults and the effect that this may have on their lives. Ross, McKechnie, and Rothbauer are all professors at the University of Western Ontario, and all have doctorate degrees in Information and Library Science. Working together on this book, each author brings a unique specialization to the text that helps the reader understand the different aspects of their individual research.

Catherine Sheldrick Ross’ research interests involve the reading experience, the reference transaction, and information seeking and use. Her research concentration focuses on reading as it affects the lives of adults. She continues to study the pleasure reading habits of adult readers, and “at last count had more than 220 open-ended interviews with avid readers” (Ross, McKechnie & Rothbauer, 2006, p.x). Ross has also been awarded grants for her research in qualitative studies of reading. Ross has written two other books, Conducting the Reference Interview and Communicating Professionally. Along with having her books published, Ross has been published in scholarly journals such as School Library Media Quarterly, Library and Information Science Research, Public Libraries, and Research Quarterly in reference to her research with reading and its effect on adults. Ross’ extensive knowledge on the effect of reading in relation to the adult population has made her a valuable resource for this book.

Lynne McKechnie has experience both in research and in teaching, but her expertise focuses on the effects of reading in relation to children. McKechnie, before teaching at the University of Western Ontario, was a children’s librarian for twenty years. Specifically, her research focuses on the intersection of public libraries, children and reading. McKechnie (2013) focuses on “bringing children’s voices into the discussion and inquiry” of reading. She has been published in such scholarly journals as Children and Libraries, Information Research: An International Journal, Canadian Journal of Library & Information Science, and Library Trends. McKechnie’s experience in the role that reading plays in the lives of children qualifies her as an expert resource on the subjects relayed in Reading Matters.

Paulette M. Rothbauer’s research focuses on the effect of reading on young adults. Rothbauer (2013) stated her interest “in the modes and methods of access to reading materials as well as social and cultural barriers to such access” for young adults. She continues to research the roles bookstores and information communication technologies have on young adults in relation to reading. Rothbauer has written the books Handbook of Research on Children’s and Young Adult Literature and Theories of Information Behavior: A Researcher’s Guide. She has also been published in such scholarly journals as the Journal of Research on Libraries and Young Adults, Library Quarterly, and Canadian Journal of Information & Library Science. Rothbauer’s focus on the role reading has on young adults and the research she has conducted on this topic qualifies her as a valuable resource for this book.

There are numerous books and research written on the subject of the role of reading in people’s lives. Some of these books include The Power of Reading: Insights from the Research by Stephen D. Krashen, Literacy and Libraries: Learning from Case Studies by Graceanne Decandido, Readers and Reading in America: Historical and Critical Perspectives by Carl F. Kaestle, and How Texts Teach What Readers Learn by Margaret Meek. These books specifically focus on reading as it affects people. Out of the numerous authors on the subject, Margaret Meek plays a significant role in guiding the focus of Reading Matters because she is the leading expert referred to throughout the book. Margaret Meek’s work on the subject had inspired Ross, McKechnie and Rothbauer to further research how reading affects the lives of children, young adults, and adults.

Summary

The book Reading Matters comprises of four chapters, each with a different focus. The first chapter discusses reading itself, predominantly the history of reading. The other three chapters detail findings based on age groups: chapter two focuses on children’s reading, chapter three discusses young adult’s reading, and chapter four examines adult reading. The book ends with a concluding statement summarizing how the book’s findings on reading are related to each other. The chapters are broken into units that include various case studies and comments related to the section topic. Additionally, all sections have various segmented information to provide guidelines, suggestions, and additional readings, titled “What libraries Can Do”, “To Read More”, and “Research Tells Us” (Ross et al, 2006).

The authors of the book begin chapter one by questioning the idea that reading is a dying art form. To illustrate, there are some myths about reading such as “people don’t read as much as they used to, men and boys don’t read, and real reading is a solitary affair” (Ross et al, 2006, p. 17). The authors debate these statements by presenting the results of research that suggest reading is an increasing trend and recommending how libraries can further help. Core findings from studies presented in this chapter create a foundation for the rest of the book. These core findings include that reading has many levels of proficiency, takes practice to develop, and has to be fun while practicing (Ross et al, 2006). These findings are stressed as significant resources for information professionals, parents, and community members.

Chapter two discusses children’s reading and begins by providing a summary of research of children’s reading. This research includes large-scale national survey results about children’s reading trends by countries such as the United States, Australia, Canada, and England, and international comparisons between many countries (Ross et al, 2006).  The authors talk about the negative attitudes toward reading, the age gap, and ELL students reading gap respectively. Ross et al (2006) suggest that reading among children depends on very personal preferences. The authors also discuss the factors that foster reading in childhood. Not surprisingly, children from families that are familiar with reading or story telling tend to become avid readers. Through a study conducted by Ross in 1995, it was found that children love to read series books for pleasure (as cited in Ross et al., 2006, p. 82). With various studies providing corroborating research, the book suggests that series books help children to develop key literature practices such as “making patterns, putting challenges stories together, and extrapolating meaning” (Ross et al., 2006, p. 84). The book also provides insight on how to fix the reading performance and achievement gap found between boys and girls.

Chapter three changes its population to young adults’ reading, and further clarifies some of the myths concerning them. The authors dispute the perception that young adults do not read because it is not as much fun or as engaging as many popular multimedia, and that “real reading means the reading of certain kinds of books” (Ross et al, 2006, p. 102). The National Education Association survey challenges many of these assumptions, finding that more than half of young adults polled read more than ten books a year (Ross et al., 2006, p. 104). The book provides other evidence that young adults like to read and choose to read for pleasure, and reading relates to other leisure activities of young people. Additionally, young adult’s reading material is not limited to books, but extends to other medium such as magazines, newspapers, comics, and graphic novels. Ross et al (2006) discusses how reading is important in helping young adults with understanding their place in the world, how libraries can support young adults’ literacy, and social aspects of reading.

In chapter four, the book focuses on adults’ readers using different scales such as age, demographics, ethnicity, education, occupation, gender, and income (Ross et al, 2006). Using tables, Ross et al. (2006) provide statistical information on the adult reader population, showing relationships between early reading and current reading, reasons for reading, and the types of books read. From this data, the authors suggest that educational level is the greatest gauge of adult reading (Ross et al., 2006). The book also examines the emotional and social aspects associated with adults’ reading. Positive aspects such as pleasure, the feeling of reward, and self-development are emotional motivations for reading. Social aspects are suggested through the many different ways to select books, the role of the best seller list for shaping reading habits, and reading as a social activity.

The concluding statement summarizes the authors findings related to reading for pleasure. Ross et al. (2006) reassure readers, librarians, teachers and parents that their efforts to include fiction and nontraditional resources as reading material have beneficial results and need no apology.

Evaluation (1000 words)

Goal Achievement

Reading Matters proposes that all reading, no matter the genre or type of text, builds reading skills. Ross et al (2006) suggest “through reading you discover who you are” (p. 243) and argue for readers to have varied reading experiences to expand this discovery process. Reading Matters presents a comprehensive view on reading historically, and presents different viewpoints on the act of reading. In the beginning of the text the author states, “This book was written for people who are interested in reading and in the role that reading plays in people’s lives” (Ross et al., 2006, p. ix). This book thoroughly described the role reading has played in people’s lives from childhood to adulthood, and also discusses the ways in which reading can affect people’s lives. This book also discusses the why of people reading, and gives sufficient data to support its results.

Reading Matters achieved its goal of providing research about reading, libraries, and community effectively. The authors state, “The goal of this book is to provide a map to the research findings, organized according to themes that are central to people interested in the intersection of reading, readers, and libraries” (Ross et al., 2006, p. ix). The book organizes the research into four categories encompassing readers from the childhood years through to adult years. The compilation of research provides valuable insight into why and how readers read.

Overall, this book can be a good starting point for anyone who is interested in literacy. By reading this book, a person should be able to explain why reading is important in one’s life with sound theoretical evidences and study cases. This book could be used by the educators in the library and information science, but also by parents, teachers, librarians and readers.

Suggested Possibilities

Several possibilities are offered throughout the book. Ross et al. (2006) call for libraries to expand collection development policies to include varying resource types. The authors utilize research and case studies to corroborate their suggestions, directly targeting these at librarians, teachers, parents and other readers. The research not only provides rationale for reading, but also suggests what libraries can do to support and promote literacy for different populations. The book provides tips and suggestions for further research and reading by including reading lists and ‘what to do’ sections. The case studies presented in the book offer assistance to other researchers interested in literacy for different populations. The lists and suggested reading offer help for readers seeking specific solutions to the various reading dilemmas discussed.

The authors suggest the possibility that the number of readers is increasing, and not decreasing as many people assume. Ross et al. (2006) report that Americans “spend on average 7 to 10 hours a week of leisure time on reading and say that reading is their second most popular leisure activity” (p. 2). The authors show, through research, that while many assume people are not reading because there are so many other things to do, new mediums for reading has actually increased literacy. Reading Matters suggests that reading and readers are not declining. Librarians, parents, and teachers should be encouraged that their support of reading is making a difference.

Another possibility suggested by this book is that reading is an important part of people’s lives emotionally and in forming their identities. Ross et al. (2006) suggest that “for children, memories of reading closely connect the experience of story with family scenes of comfort and caring” (p.152). This shows that not only can a person have an emotional connection with the text of a book, but also with the experience that went along with reading the book. This book gives several examples of that emotional connection with the text, along with the suggestion that reading plays an important role in our identity. Ross et al. (2006) state that reading books for pleasure “helps us understand who we are and what our place in the world is and might become” (p.115). The social structures shown in books and the relation of the reader within that context helps the reader understand more about themselves as they read.

Missing factors

            The most obvious component missing from the text was the aspects related to reading for a specific purpose. The authors discuss pleasure reading extensively, however little is discussed on quality or purposeful reading. Many readers research topics for educational purposes, or to fill an information need that is not necessarily pleasurable. This book also largely leaves out the impact that non-fiction text has on readers. The book discusses the history of literature and reading, and the importance of fiction. It briefly mentions non-fiction, but there is a wide variety of people that prefer reading non-fiction. However, how non-fiction plays a role in their lives is excluded from the authors’ analysis.

Digital media is also not discussed in Reading Matters. Even though this book was published in 2006, there was still a growing population of e-readers and digital texts in the world, and this book could have discussed this type of reading as well. Even though the text of an e-book and print are the same, the experience of the reading process is different. The book could have included more on the influence of digital media and how these technologies affect reading habits.

Reading Matters also left out the impact of what children read, which could show the effects of different types of books that include violence, action, and adventure. This section of the book focuses mostly on a child’s achievement as a reader. However, avid reading in children may not always lead to growth of the whole child if the content the child is reading is having an adverse impact. With this in mind, research on the quality of what a child reads, not just the quantity would have been beneficial.

Points that are not convincing

There were few points that were not convincing and lacked sufficient research to be persuasive. Topics such as identity development, gender differences, and forming reading habits through writing have inadequate supporting evidence in the book to be convincing.  Ross et al. (2006) state, “You are what you read and through reading you discover who you are” (Ross et al., 2006, p. 243). However a lack of reading experience does not indicate an inability to form an identity or develop character. The authors also state, “Reading then helps us understand who we are and what our place in the world is and might become” (Ross, McKechnie & Rothbauer, 2006, p. 115), but there is no research to support the idea that only people who read know their place in the world. It is not convincing that the construction of one’s identity is only as a result of what is being read. While a reader might identify with a character or a situation that is being read, the text does not provide research indicating the development of an individual’s identity is only as a result of reading habits.

The issue of gender is also not convincing in relation to the reading habits of children. While there are differences between male and female readers, especially in youth, stereotypes of these differences have shifted and are not as prevalent as they once were. Ross et al. (2006) state statistics about boys and learning disabilities, but that does not discuss the role of reading in an adolescent boys’ life (p. 88). This section also discusses the types of stories that boys and girls enjoy reading, which is dynamic and subject to change. Many girls enjoy reading sci-fi and fantasy in social settings, while boys can also enjoy reading fairy tales. Statistics based on a study of kindergarten and first grade students does not accurately reflect the reading tastes of older children (Ross et al, 2006, p. 89). Children of that young age could be choosing the books for themselves, but more likely parents or teachers suggest specific readings that could influence their future choices.

Personal experiences related to reading

As a group, there are varied and diverse experiences related to reading. Each group member has discovered a love of reading, and eagerly looks forward to sharing the adventures and trials in reading with others through librarianship. Although each person’s experiences in reading are different, each is equally valid and worthwhile.

Group Member A read every book she encountered while growing up, and was frequently gifted with books from family members. One such gift included a collection of fifty classical literature books, which she voraciously read. This distressed her mother, who tried to blame Member A’s need for glasses on reading. After reading the whole collection in a two month timespan, she continued reading books and is now working on her doctorate degree in library science.

Group Member B (Stacy Derleth) exclusively read romantic fiction as a young adult. The attraction of a guaranteed happy ever after would consistently bring her back to this genre. Occasionally, she would attempt reading classical literature or nonfiction, but usually could not summon the enthusiasm to finish reading the book. This experience in reading gave her the practice needed to be able to focus on and comprehend academic articles for her graduate studies in library science and information technology.

Group Member C frequently reflects on how time changes the perspective of a story for her. She recently reread a fictional story after an extended lapse in time, and it provided a different meaning to her on the second reading. Ross et al. (2006) discuss the “Reader Response Theory” (p. 50) in which the focus of the reading experience is the emotions of the reader. These emotions are based on the past experiences of the reader, evolving over time and affecting the emotional response of reading.

Group Member D shares her reading experience with other people through book clubs. She has experienced the validation a book club can give to time spent reading for pleasure and finds book clubs help in making different book choices than her normal selections. As part of these book communities, she also can look forward to the social aspects of regular meetings and time together with friends.

Conclusion

Reading Matters successfully compiles research about reading, and provides insight into the development of reading skill. The progression of the book from child to young adult to adult in the development of reading skill is carefully organized and logical. As an appeal to librarians, parents, teachers, and readers everywhere to encourage reading of whatever genre and material that is interesting and fun, Reading Matters is successful in convincing the value of pleasure reading. Any reader of this book will emerge from its pages with a clear understand of how important it is to read for pleasure.

References

McKechnie, L. (2013). Research Interests. Retrieved from http://www.fims.uwo.ca/peopleDirectory/faculty/fulltimefaculty/full_time_faculty_profil e.htm?PeopleId=130 [O1]

Rothbauer, P.M. (2013). Research. Retrieved from http://www.fims.uwo.ca/peopleDirectory/faculty/fulltimefaculty/full_time_faculty_profil e.htm?PeopleId=545 [O2]

Ross, C.S., McKechnie, L. & Rothbauer, P.M. (2006). Reading Matters: What the Research Reveals abut Reading, Libraries, and Community. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.

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Leadership Discussion 4

Leadership Discussion 4

What is one action you can take to be more effective as a leader to improve your credibility and influence?

The one action a leader can do to be more effective is to “say what you are going to do and you do what you say” (Miller, 2008). Being up front enables followers to understand what is being done, and then they see that you are capable of following through with the action.  I have had several managers through the years who said they were going to do something, and it never was done. Those managers lost credibility and influence with me, because I came to understand that I could not count on them doing what they said they would do. As Cohen and Bradford (2005) said, “Influence requires considerable relationship building and maintenance.”  It takes time to develop credibility and influence, and even a leader who has credibility and influence with their followers can have trouble if they start to disappoint them. As Lloyd (2011) suggested, if in doubt, a leader would be better off to not “agree to do a task unless you are absolutely certain you will follow through.”

Cohen, A. & Bradford, D. (2005). Influence without authority. Retrieved from http://www.influencewithoutauthority.com/descriptionofcomplexcases.html

Lloyd, J. (2011). Impressing executives: four ways to build credibility and influence. Merit Resource Group. Retrieved from http://merithr.haleymail.com/i/24266749l1

Miller, J. (2008). Ask Jo: establishing credibility and influence. Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology. Retrieved from http://anitaborg.org/news/archive/ask-jo-establishing-credibility-and-influence/

Researching Incoming Graduate Students’ Information Behavior

Researching Incoming Graduate Students’ Information Behavior

Within the first few months of graduate study, the quality of my research greatly improved. My information behavior methods have become more sophisticated, and I now use previously unknown academically rich resources. Before starting the semester, citation mapping and chaining were not part of my research arsenal, and I never used advanced academic catalogs, such as the Web of Science. Certain factors contributed to my ignorance, including extended pauses in my academic career, being an older adult student, and unfamiliarity with university resources. The most astounding discovery from this information literacy growth has been the ironic realization that when entering the graduate program, I believed myself competent in information literacy, only to discover how much I was missing. This experience created an interest to learn about the information behavior of other incoming graduate students, and who or what forms their information behavior.

 Literature Review

Research abilities and information literacy skills

There have been several studies exploring the abilities of incoming graduate students, and these studies have evaluated whether incoming graduate students were prepared to accomplish the rigorous research required for their programs. Incoming graduate students have unique information needs due to the gap in expectations between perceived and actual research expertise. Monroe-Gulick and Petr (2012) considered that gap large enough to suggest the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) re-evaluate their graduate student standards, and use the current graduate student standards for undergraduate instruction. They suggested graduate student instruction should focus on the research process instead of general information literacy.

Chen and Lin concluded in 2011 that graduate students confuse familiarity with the internet for information literacy. Through their study at Carnegie Mellon University, George et al. (2006) found resource searching through internet search engines such as Google and Wikipedia were the most popular methods used by graduate students. Allen and Weber (2012) analyzed reference lists and found the journals being used by incoming graduate students were not the best sources for research studies, with students lacking the skill to distinguish the difference between evidence-based resources from opinion and general information resources.

The transition between undergraduate student and graduate student is abrupt, no matter if there is a lapse between enrollment, and a lack of information literacy skills during this process can hinder the transition. Students returning to school for graduate course work encounter challenges in academic difficulty and technological advancements (Allen and Weber, 2012). Chu and Law (2008) determined that the skill of graduate students does not meet the levels that are required for graduate research, and information search training is still needed at the graduate level to help students become competent at information searching.

Conway (2011) found the issue of students completing undergraduate study without the skills they need for graduate study troubling. Her study to determine the different in literacy skills between graduate and undergraduate students indicated the difference is “hardly overwhelming” (Conway, 2011, pg. 132). Undergraduate students typically have research topics assigned and research methods do not need to be extensive to fulfill course requirements. In contrast, graduate students are expected to determine their own research topics and to locate the appropriate research materials to study and substantiate ideas. This methodology is supported by Khosrowjerdi (2011), who found prior knowledge of subjects reduced barriers to information seeking during his study of graduate students at Tehran University. Students learning about a topic in class and then researching that topic have different research needs than graduate students selecting a topic for research, particularly for thesis papers. The research required for graduate study is more intense and self-directed, requiring higher levels of information literacy than undergraduate course work.

Guidance sources for research resources

Studies have investigated the people and sources graduate students utilize the most. Graduate students often rely on faculty to determine accepted standards of research resources within their specific academic program (George et al, 2006). Students utilize the resources suggested by faculty, limiting where research resources originate. Faculty mentoring and guidance during the research process influences students to use specific databases and particular information sources (Chen and Lin, 2010). Chen and Lin (2010) suggest faculty is the most influential in encouraging information literacy methods to incoming graduate students. It is during the initial stages of a research project that a graduate student depends the most on faculty and faculty advisors for research guidance (Barrett, 2005).

Interestingly, Barrett describes the lack of librarian guidance used by graduate students. He reported students agree on the value of librarians on locating materials, but otherwise they do not typically use librarians as a guidance source. In a longitudinal study, Rempel (2010) found graduate students did not think librarians could help them because they were not familiar and trained in their specific field. Graduate students typically do not consider using librarian assistance, and creating a relationship between librarians and students equivalent to that held by faculty has proven challenging (Monroe-Gulick & Petr, 2012). Increased contact between students and librarians will benefit the students’ information literacy skills (Barton et al., 2002).

Rasul and Singh (2010) determined that graduate students want libraries to provide more classes on information literacy, but they failed to mention how the library literacy classes were already being utilized to determine if this was a valid desire on the part of the students. In other studies, students have been surprised to discover information literacy and research classes were available (Sadler and Given, 2007).

Studies in improving information literacy skills

There have been several studies to determine what can be done to improve incoming graduate student’s information literacy skills. Rempel (2010) conducted a longitudinal study where graduate students were oriented by library reference staff on research methods and information literacy skills. These students showed increased research skills, and had greater ease in locating appropriate materials for use in their research. They also reported utilizing new databases and better understanding research resources. Although these students reported positive results, the instance of reference library and orientation use is still infrequent, with most graduate students declining reference librarians’ assistance for their research. Researchers Liu and Winn (2009) speculated that libraries are not promoting the various services offered, causing the students to be unaware the resources are available. This idea was supported by Sadler and Given (2007) when they discussed the affordance theory and how academic librarians should focus on promoting the library by creating a dialogue with students and faculty. Barton et al. (2002) suggested further research should be conducted to determine why students request additional classes and services, but do not take advantage of the classes and resources already available to them. Liu and Winn (2009) presented a study on the use of library services by Chinese graduate students at the University of Windsor. They reported that among the students who reported to have attended library literacy classes, everyone thought the time spent in the class was worth it, and stated the classes were helpful (Liu & Winn, 2009).

Psychological Barriers

Several researchers have studied the possible psychological barriers to incoming graduate becoming proficient in information literacy skills. Onwuegbuzie and Jiao (2004) explored the way anxiety can influence graduate students. Students that experience library anxiety have a difficult time understanding library resources, and have high instances of procrastination (Onwuegbuzie and Jiao, 2004). Anxiety affects research performance by inhibiting students’ ability to concentrate on research material and determining if the materials meet their research needs. Onwuegbuzie and Jiao (2004) suggested anxiety could prevent students from developing satisfactory library research skills due to misunderstanding signs or instructions, or refrain from seeking help.

Another barrier to incoming graduate student acquiring sufficient research skills is the issue of competency. Gross (2005) discusses the overconfidence incoming graduate students experience when entering their master level program. These students are unaware that they do not have the information literacy and research skills needed to successfully complete their programs. Some students are unable to adequately evaluate their work in comparison to other students, causing them to not consider their research inferior (Gross, 2005). This could be an explanation as to why new graduate students are not flooding libraries seeking to learn how to improve their research skills.

Research Questions after Literature Review

How would library orientation increase graduate student literary skills?

1.)  How would library orientation affect graduate student literary and research skills?

2.)  If library orientation is found effective, how would universities offer library orientation?

3.)  How should graduate student library orientation differ from undergraduate library orientations?

4.)  How would the issue of distance learning be addressed in library orientations and information literacy skill instruction?

Overcoming barriers to graduate students seeking reference librarian assistance

1.)  What causes students to have library anxiety?

2.)  How can students overcome anxiety in seeking librarian assistance? What tools do they need for this? (Anxiety-Expectation Mediation)

3.)  Is there a connection between information literacy skills and library anxiety? Do individuals who experience library anxiety have high or low literary and research skills?

4.)  How can incoming graduate students be educated about literary and research skills when they are ignorant of their ignorance? (Competency Theory)

Research Study Purpose

The purpose of this research study would be to answer the question of how incoming graduate students can be educated about library literacy and research skills when they are unaware of their lack of knowledge. These students are experiencing an academic transition requiring more effective and intense research abilities than were required as undergraduate students. Incoming graduate students often experience academic gaps between undergraduate and graduate study causing them to be unfamiliar with current research technology and methods. Students attending universities different than they attended as undergraduate students are unfamiliar with library resources due to being new to the university. This study will evaluate how effectively incoming graduate students evaluate their own library literacy in relation to research, explore their current knowledge of research resources, and their prior use of research assistance.

Study Questions

• How would you rate your research abilities? (Poor, Fair, Good, Excellent)

• What print resources do you use for research?

• What online resources do you use for research?

• What databases do you use for research?

• Did you attend this university for an undergraduate degree?

• Have you been to library orientation for graduate students?

• Would you participate in a library orientation program for graduate students?

Why or why not?

• How often have you discussed research goals with reference librarians as an undergraduate student?

• Do you feel you could instruct others how to research effectively?

Study Methodologies

The research method would utilize currently established university orientation programs to survey incoming graduate students. Universities require students attend orientation prior to starting classes, and often have campus and online sessions. The survey would be distributed during these orientation sessions, and then collected or submitted during the session. An optional longitudinal section could be added to follow up on the initial survey results, with students who attend a library orientation taking the survey again after the library orientation.

Data Analysis

Survey questions would have either yes/no or short answer results. Charts and graphs would be compiled by response to look for commonality and trends. A comparison would be done between the initial self-assessment of research expertise in the first question and the final self-assessment of the ability to instruct others on research in the last question to determine validity of the expressed research expertise. A strong self-rating in the initial self-assessment that is not supported by the ability to teach research skills to another person might indicate a true lack of confidence in research ability. The data compiled from the responses for research resources and databases would support or refute the expressed proficiency. A lack of knowledge of research resources and databases do not exhibit a lack of proficiency, but advanced knowledge of research resources would indicate a higher level of expertise. Survey questions relating to familiarity to the university can be used to determine if students new to the campus are more or less willing to attend library orientation. Results will need to be evaluated to determine if students who have attended the university as undergraduate students respond differently than students new to the university.

If the longitudinal section is supplemented into the study, a comparison between the initial survey responses and the supplemental responses would be done. This would examine whether library orientation had significantly improved library literacy and research capabilities.

Benefits of Applied Research

A new graduate student walks into a library and goes to a database they were introduced to during graduate level library orientation. They enter into the database their research subject and find 100 resources, with at least half of the resources completely meeting the student’s needs at a cursory glance. The student enters in Boolean operators, and the results are refined to 30, with all of those resources seeming to meet the graduate student’s needs. The student is able to locate, obtain, or request all of those resources, and they go on their way.

Another new graduate student walks into the same library and goes to the same database. They enter into the database their research subject and do not find any resources. They remember from library orientation that the fewer words used in a search, the more likely they are to find resources. The student enters a generalized subject into the database, and still does not find any resources. They consider giving up the subject, as there does not seem to be any resources for that subject, but then they remember there are research librarians willing to help. The graduate student discusses their subject with a librarian, and together they find the needed resources.

A third new graduate student enters the same library. They enter into the database their research subject and do not find any resources. They try being more descriptive of the subject in hopes of finding resources, but still do not find any. They try several more subject searches in the database, all with no resources being found. After hours of fruitless searching, the student decides to give up and leaves the library without having found any valid resources for their effort.

Not finding research resources is typical. The first and second scenarios are the exception, not the norm (Yu and Young, 2004). Most incoming graduate students do not participate in library orientations, and are ill prepared for the intense research requirements found in graduate school.

Improving Information Services

The results of my research could form the policy for colleges and universities on programs for graduate level library orientation. These policies would require graduate level library orientation as part of the entrance orientation, or as part of the curriculum. Graduate programs could include library orientation as part of their programs for incoming students, similar in format to the workshops utilized by Rempel (2010). Faculty members would encourage students to utilize help from research librarians and participate in library workshops to improve research skills. Libraries could advertise research assistance through school email and websites, specifically targeting graduate students. The result would be improved research abilities for graduate students, enabling them to bridge the academic gap between undergraduate and graduate study. Understanding how to research properly can influence a graduate student’s entire academic career, and having the proper skills reduces stress from trying to meet the new expectations placed on them as they enter this new phase of academic life.

References

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